THE BASICS OF BEHAVIORISM

The Basics of Behaviorism

Though Watson. Thorndike, Pavlov and Skinner are often mentioned in relation to behavioural learning theories. Behaviorism, can be traced back to philosophers such as Aristotle, whose essay "Memory" focused on associations being made between events such as lightning and thunder. Other philosophers that followed Aristotle's thoughts are Hobbs (1650), Hume (1740), Brown (1820), Bain (1855) and Ebbinghause (1885) (Black, 1995).

The theory of behaviorism concentrates on the study of overt behaviors that can be observed and measured (Good & Brophy, 1990). It views the mind as a "black box" in the sense that response to stimulus can be observed quantitatively, totally ignoring the possibility of thought processes occurring in the mind. Some key players in the development of the behaviorist theory were Pavlov, Watson, Thorndike and Skinner.

Pavlov (1849 - 1936)

For most people, the name "Pavlov" rings a bell The Russian physiologist is best known for his work in classical conditioning or stimulus substitution. Pavlov's most famous experiment involved food, a dog and a bell.

Pavlov's Experiment

• Before conditioning, ringing the bell caused no response from the dog. Placing food in front of the dog initiated salivation.
• During conditioning, the bell was rung a few seconds before the dog was presented with food.
• After conditioning, the ringing of the bell alone produced salivation
  (Dembo, 1994).

Stimulus and Response Items of Pavlov's Experiment

Food	Unconditioned Stimulus
Salivation	Unconditioned Response (natural, not learned)
Bell	Conditioned Stimulus
Salivation	Conditioned Response (to bell)

Other Observations Made by Pavlov

• Stimulus Generalization: Once the dog has learned to salivate at the sound of the bell, it will salivate at other similar sounds.
• Extinction: If you stop pairing the bell with the food, salivation will eventually cease in response to the bell.
• Spontaneous Recovery: Extinguished responses can be "recovered" after an elapsed time, but will soon extinguish again if the dog is not presented with food.
• Discrimination: The dog could learn to discriminate between similar bells (stimuli) and discern which bell would result in the presentation of food and which would not.
• Higher-Order Conditioning: Once the dog has been conditioned to associate the bell with food, another unconditioned stimulus, such as a light may be flashed at the same time that the bell is rung. Eventually the dog will salivate at the flash of the light without the sound of the bell.

Thorndike (1874 - 1949)

Edward Thorndike did research in animal behavior before becoming interested in human psychology. He set out to apply "the methods of exact science" to educational problems by emphasizing "accurate quantitative treatment of information". "Anything that exists, exists in a certain quantity and can be measured" (Johcich, as cited in Rizo, 1991). His theory, Connectionism, stated that learning was the formation of a connection between stimulus and response.

• The "law of effect" stated that when a connection between a stimulus and response is positively rewarded it will be strengthened and when it is negatively rewarded it will be weakened. Thorndike later revised this "law" when he found that negative reward, (punishment) did not necessarily weaken bonds, and that some seemingly pleasurable consequences do not necessarily motivate performance.
• The "law of exercise" held that the more an S-R (stimulus response) bond is practiced the stronger it will become. As with the law of effect, the law of exercise also had to be updated when Thorndike found that practice without feedback does not necessarily enhance performance.
• The "law of readiness" : because of the structure of the nervous system, certain conduction units, in a given situation, are more predisposed to conduct than others.

Thorndike's laws were based on the stimulus-response hypothesis. He believed that a neural bond would be established between the stimulus and response when the response was positive. Learning takes place when the bonds are formed into patterns of behavior (Saettler, 1990).

Watson (1878 - 1958)

John B. Watson was the first American psychologist to use Pavlov's ideas. Like Thorndike, he was originally involved in animal research, but later became involved in the study of human behavior.

Watson believed that humans are born with a few reflexes and the emotional reactions of love and rage. All other behavior is established through stimulus-response associations through conditioning.

Watson's Experiment

Watson demonstrated classical conditioning in an experiment involving a young child (Albert) and a white rabbit. Originally, Albert was unafraid of the rabbit; but Watson created a sudden loud noise whenever Albert touched the rabbit. Because Albert was frightened by the loud noise, he soon became conditioned to fear and avoid the rabbit. The fear was generalized to other small animals. Watson then "extinguished" the fear by presenting the rabbit without the loud noise. Some accounts of the study suggest that the conditioned fear was more powerful and permanent than it really was. (Harris, 1979; Samelson, 1980, in Brophy, 1990)

Certainly Watson's research methods would be questioned today; however, his work did demonstrate the role of conditioning in the development of emotional responses to certain stimuli. This may explain certain fears, phobias and prejudices that people develop. (Watson is credited with coining the term "behaviorism")

Skinner (1904 - 1990)

Like Pavlov, Watson and Thorndike, Skinner believed in the stimulus-response pattern of conditioned behavior. His theory dealt with changes in observable behavior, ignoring the possibility of any processes occurring in the mind. Skinner's 1948 book, Walden Two , is about a utopian society based on operant conditioning. He also wrote,Science and Human Behavior, (1953) in which he pointed out how the principles of operant conditioning function in social institutions such as government, law, religion, economics and education (Dembo, 1994).

Skinner's work differs from that of his predecessors (classical conditioning), in that he studied operant behavior (voluntary behaviors used in operating on the environment).

Difference between Classical and Operant Conditioning

Skinner's Operant Conditioning Mechanisms

• Positive Reinforcement or reward: Responses that are rewarded are likely to be repeated. (Good grades reinforce careful study.)
• Negative Reinforcement: Responses that allow escape from painful or undesirable situations are likely to be repeated. (Being excused from writing a final because of good term work.)
• Extinction or Non-Reinforcement : Responses that are not reinforced are not likely to be repeated. (Ignoring student misbehavior should extinguish that behavior.)
• Punishment: Responses that bring painful or undesirable consequences will be suppressed, but may reappear if reinforcement contingencies change. (Penalizing late students by withdrawing privileges should stop their lateness.)

(Good & Brophy, 1990)

Behavioral Shaping

If placed in a cage an animal may take a very long time to figure out that pressing a lever will produce food. To accomplish such behavior successive approximations of the behavior are rewarded until the animal learns the association between the lever and the food reward. To begin shaping, the animal may be rewarded for simply turning in the direction of the lever, then for moving toward the lever, for brushing against the lever, and finally for pawing the lever.

Behavioral chaining occurs when a succession of steps need to be learned. The animal would master each step in sequence until the entire sequence is learned.

Reinforcement Schedules

Once the desired behavioral response is accomplished, reinforcement does not have to be 100%; in fact it can be maintained more successfully through what Skinner referred to as partial reinforcement schedules. Partial reinforcement schedules include interval schedules and ratio schedules.

• Fixed Interval Schedules: the target response is reinforced after a fixed amount of time has passed since the last reinforcement.
• Variable Interval Schedules: similar to fixed interval schedules, but the amount of time that must pass between reinforcement varies.
• Fixed Ratio Schedules: a fixed number of correct responses must occur before reinforcement may recur.
• Variable Ratio Schedules: the number of correct repetitions of the correct response for reinforcement varies.

Variable interval and especially, variable ratio schedules produce steadier and more persistent rates of response because the learners cannot predict when the reinforcement will come although they know that they will eventually succeed. (Have you checked your Lottery tickets lately?)

Overview

According to the behaviorists, learning can be defined as the relatively permanent change in behavior brought about as a result of experience or practice. [Note: an internal event displayed by overt behavior; contrasted with biological maturation or genetics as an explanation for relatively permanent change.] In fact, the term "learning theory" is often associated with the behavioral view. Researchers who affiliate with this position do not generally look with favor on the term "behavior potential" (i.e., may be capable of performing but did not for some reason such as illness, situation, etc.) that was included in a definition accepted by those with a cognitive or humanistic viewpoint. The focus of the behavioral approach is on how the environment impacts overt behavior. The psychomotor domain is associated with overt behavior when writing instructional objectives. Cunia (2005) provides an excellent overview of the behavioral approach applied to learning. Behavior analysis is the term used to describe the scientific study of behavior and behavior modification is the term used to describe the application of behavior analysis concepts and principles for the systematic or programmatic changing of behavior.

As we discuss the behavioral approach, for the most part we will assume that the mind is a "black box" that we cannot see into. The only way we know what is going on in the mind, according to most behaviorists, is to look at overt behavior. The feedback loop that connects overt behavior to stimuli that activate the senses has been studied extensively from this perspective.

There are three types of behaviorist learning theories:

1. Contiguity -- any stimulus and response connected in time and/or space will tend to be associated

      ASSOCIATED TERMINOLOGY:

1.      stimulus = environmental event

2.      response = action = behavior = overt behavior

2. Classical (Respondent) Conditioning -- association of stimuli (an antecedent stimulus will reflexively elicit an innate emotional or physiological response; another stimulus will elicit an orienting response)

ASSOCIATED TERMINOLOGY:

1. conditioning = learning
2. antecedent = a stimulus occuring "before" a response
3. reflexive = involuntary (e.g., involuntary responses cannot be consciously stopped once they start)
4. innate = inborn
5. elicits = causes (to bring forth)
2. Operant (Instrumental) Conditioning -- connection of emitted behavior and its consequences (reinforcement and punishment)

ASSOCIATED TERMINOLOGY:

1. emitted = voluntary (e.g., voluntary responses can be consciously stopped)
2. consequent or consequences = a stimulus occurring "after" a response that changes the probability the response will occur again

Additional Terminology:

There are several terms associated with the behavioral approach that deserve further explanation.

Extinction -- the breaking of the stimulus-stimulus or stimulus-response connection

1.      contiguity theory -- if the stimulus is no longer paired with the response, the association will be discontinued.

2.      classical conditioning -- if the conditioned stimulus (CS) is repeatedly presented by itself (without pairing with the unconditioned stimulus [US]) the conditioning / association process is reversed, and the CS will become an NS.

3.      operant conditioning -- if the response is no longer followed by a consequence (it is not reinforced or punished), it will cease to be emitted.

4.      social learning theory -- if the observed response is no longer followed by a consequence (it is not reinforced or punished), or if the model begins to display an incompatible behavior, the response will cease to be emitted.

Spontaneous recovery: Sometimes, after extinction in classical conditioning, if the conditioned stimulus (CS) is again presented, it will "spontaneously" elicit the conditioned response (CR).

Higher (or second) order conditioning: Classical conditioning does not have to involve pairing an neutral stimulus (NS) with an unconditioned stimulu (US). If an NS is paired with an existing conditioned stimulus (CS), the NS will also become a CS.

Stimulus generalization and discrimination

·         generalization -- behaviors learned in one context or situation are transfered to another (e.g., studying hard in Ed Psyc is transfered to studying hard in other classes)

·         discrimination -- behaviors reward or punished in one context or situation have a different contingency in another (e.g., spending 5 hours per week in most courses is OK, but must spend 10 hours per week in Ed Psyc)

References

• Cunia, E. (2005). Behavioral learning theory. Principles of Instruction and Learning: A Web Quest. Retrieved April 2006, from http://suedstudent.syr.edu/~ebarrett/ide621/behavior.htm